[Solved] Assigment .Apa seven . All instructions attached.

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– ## ResearchPaper2.docx – ## ClassicModelforanArgument..docx **## ResearchPaper2.docx** Research Paper 2 Content 1. Top of Form **PLEASE READ MY FEEDBACK ON YOUR ARGUMENT OUTLINE BEFORE SUBMITTING YOUR FINAL DRAFT** **Research Paper #2** This paper must be between 4 to 5 pages long ( **_not including the References page_**). This paper must be in **APA format.** **_ITALICIZE_ OR** **UNDERLINE YOUR THESIS STATEMENT** The paper must be from one of the topics listed from the list of topics you were given. **_Please note that your References page MUST have at least 8 (EIGHT) credible sources such as: books, newspapers, medical journals, and magazines._** Do not use websites such as: Wikipedia, Infoplease, Answers.com, WebMd, Psychology Today, etc. **You must use the FNU library database–LIRN.** **THIS IS A RESEARCH PAPER….NOT A LITERATURE REVIEW!!!!!** **Do NOT include tables, lists, bullet points, and graphs in your paper.** Be sure to edit your work before submitting it. **Be sure to AVOID CONTRACTIONS in formal writing.** **ONLY SUBMIT THE PAPER. YOU DO NOT NEED A COVER PAGE. DO NOT SUBMIT AN OUTLINE WITH THE PAPER.** **Research Paper #2 is due on Friday, December 5, by 11:30 p.m., EST.** Bottom of Form **## ClassicModelforanArgument..docx** 1 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Isairy Otano Florida National University Advanced Writing and Research Professor: Amanda M Giust January 14, 2024 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Opioids are pharmacological substances that mitigate pain by interacting with certain receptors in the brain or the central nervous system. However, Over the last two decades, several reports have expressed concern over the safety of these medications. The opioid epidemic has reached alarming proportions. The epidemic has materialized into a horrifying reality that has had catastrophic effects on global communities. Opioid use disorder (OUD) has been identified in 27 million individuals worldwide, and over 92,000 fatalities are linked to opioid overdoses each year (Hamid et al., 2022). The United States particularly faces a significant problem with opioid use disorder (OUD) and the occurrence of fatal overdoses resulting from the illegal use of opioids. The situation has become so concerning that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services officially declared it an opioid epidemic in 2017. Over the last decade, the opioid epidemic has contributed to a drop in US life expectancy. Oxycodone and hydrocodone usage and overdose mortality surged in the 1990s due to increasing prescriptions. The growing availability of heroin and synthetic opioids like fentanyl may have contributed to opioid overdose deaths. Street drugs, including fentanyl or its powerful analogues, heroin, or psychostimulants, have also contributed to this development. Presently, the United States has the greatest count of fatalities caused by opioid overdoses globally. CDC (2023) reports that the fatality count resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 exceeded sixfold the figure recorded in 1999. There was a 16% increase in drug overdose fatalities from 2020 to 2021. More than three-quarters of the over 107,000 fatalities resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 were caused by opioids between the years 2020 and 2021. Opioid use disorder (OUD) may lower quality of life, worsen comorbid diseases, and raise the risk of blood-borne infections, including HIV and hepatitis. Prescription opioid possession is punishable by harsh penalties. However, they have failed to reduce nationwide non-fatal and deadly overdoses. The punishments frequently reinforce a cycle that doesn't address addiction's causes. Penalties for the possession of prescription opioids should be reduced due to a compassionate approach to addiction, potential alternative treatments and the reduction in the criminal justice system's burden. **The Essence of a Compassionate Treatment for Addiction** Penalties for prescription opioids possession need to be re-evaluated in the light of humane addiction therapy. The compassionate approach to addiction therapy hopes for a person. From its point of view, every individual person is fundamentally good and full of potential, whatever his or her actions and situations. Personal development, change, and self-realization, both positive and negative, can be experienced by all people over the course of their life. It also accepts that even actions that harm are often based on a motivation to be a part of something or fulfil unmet needs. The method is concerned with empathy, understanding, respect, and support. This form of treatment admits the fact that all these factors are contributory to the process of healing and the creation of a sense of self-worth and dignity. Such a humanitarian form of treatment also admits the fact that addiction is a medical problem, not a criminal one. It emphasizes the punishment, most of the time in the form of jail, which is mere exacerbation of addiction without treating the roots of the problem. These punishments are fines, probation, and probably imprisonment. The punitive view displays the attitude of treating addiction as a crime, rather than a chronic sickness. Such view totally ignores the scientific knowledge of addiction as the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social components. On the other hand, compassionate therapy involves caring and support for addicts with realization of their worthiness and ability to recover. Recent research and experts have shown that punitive tactics do not work in treating addiction. Ochterbeck et al. (2023) provide persuasive evidence that punitive techniques are ineffective and recommend treatment-focused strategies. Viewing addiction as a health problem rather than a crime indicates that punitive measures do not fix drug usage. Holistic addiction therapy is more thorough and compassionate than punishing. Addiction recovery depends on non-specialized counselling, treatment, and rehabilitation clinics. According to Yucel et al. (2022), trauma, mental health concerns, and socioeconomic inequities contribute to addiction; therefore, tackling both is crucial. Alternative techniques in numerous nations and jurisdictions demonstrate the efficacy of compassionate treatment strategies. Harm reduction programs minimize the harmful effects of drug use as people recover at their speed. Drug treatment courts also concentrate on rehabilitation rather than punishment for substance use problems. These methods show that compassion and caring in addiction treatment may work. **Potential for Alternative Treatments** Reducing prescription opioid possession penalties is crucial, especially given the possibility of better opioid dependency therapies. Opioid dependency treatment includes MAT and behavioural therapy. MAT uses methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone with counselling and behavioural therapy. The medications reduce opioid cravings and withdrawal, simplifying cessation. To improve drug use habits, behavioural treatment uses counseling and psychotherapy. Despite these treatment options, opioid abusers encounter significant barriers to care. Stigma, racism, lack of insurance, and limited treatment facilities restrict many. The barriers may hinder addicts from seeking treatment, leaving them exposed to opioid usage and its effects (Wogen & Restrepo, 2020). Reduce prescription opioid possession charges to help people get treatment. To escape prosecution, addicts may seek therapy. It may improve treatment and lower opioid dependency's socioeconomic cost. Acupuncture and mindfulness-based therapy options may help opioid dependence. The insertion of needles into certain body sites helps regulate withdrawal symptoms, reduce cravings, and increase well-being. Acupuncture reduces opioid usage and aids rehabilitation (Coombs et al., 2021). Other therapies like yoga and meditation target stress, trauma, and emotional regulation, which contribute to addiction. Integrating these treatments into existing addiction treatment programs can provide a more comprehensive and personalized approach to recovery. For instance, local drug courts move non-violent criminals with substance use issues from jail to supervised programs with treatment and strict responsibility. Through case management, the courts link the judicial, law enforcement, and treatment communities to other systems and provider organizations to meet participants' education, housing, job training, and mental health referral requirements. Drug courts aid in addiction recovery, deter future criminal action and reduce the expense of processing low-level, non-violent offenders in courts, jails, and prisons (Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2023). **Reducing the Burden on the Criminal Justice System** The criminal justice system is overburdened with drug-related charges, and reducing prescription opioid possession sanctions is essential. Overcrowded prisons and limited law enforcement resources have resulted from the criminalization of drug crimes, particularly prescription opioid possession (Vedder, 2020). Punitive approaches towards drug offences have been largely ineffective in addressing addiction rates or reducing drug usage levels. Despite harsh penalties for drug-related offences, addiction rates continue to rise, and drug usage levels remain high. Punitive measures alone are insufficient in addressing the underlying issues driving drug addiction. A shift in focus towards prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation programs could help alleviate the burden on the criminal justice system. Prevention strategies like education and outreach may address addiction's fundamental causes before people enter the criminal justice system. Addiction treatment and rehabilitation programs provide the help and tools needed to overcome drug use problems without jail. Police and jail defunding may fund preventive treatment and re-entry initiatives. Community-based drug courts and diversion programs may be better at treating drug addiction than law enforcement and jail. Providing compassionate and effective addiction treatment and support. The interventions reduce recidivism and improve addict outcomes. (Dickson-Gomez et al., 2022). **Counterarguments and Rebuttals** There has been controversy around reducing the penalty for the possession of prescribed opioids, with concern arising from addiction, overdose deaths, and illegal drug trafficking. The major problem is making these drugs easily available, and a misapprehension in the mind of the public about the hazards associated with it. Similarly, the argument that reducing penalties for possession would help to avoid root causes of the opioid epidemic, such as overprescribing pain medication, lack of access to evidence-based treatment and recovery services, and a deficit in education about the dangers of prescription opioid abuse (Beckett & Brydolf-Horwitz, 2020). Drug trafficking organizations would then be even more willing to trade prescription opioids with lesser chance of persecution, increasing drug consumption. Prescription opioids are highly addictive and can make one develop physical and psychological addiction, respiratory depression, coma, and death. The other problem that such opioid crisis creates is drug trafficking, in that powerful cartels dominate the production and hubs in some of the most major American cities for the supply of heroin. Lowering prescription opioid possession penalties could enhance access, sales, and distribution and send the incorrect message to the public. To eliminate opioid distributors, harsh consequences should be implemented. (Bowers and Abrahamson, 2020). However, evidence would suggest that compassionate, therapy-based programs are more effective at getting to the root causes of addiction and reducing stigma. Reduced stigma, enhanced community health, and resource diversion to preventive and treatment clearly outweigh perceived hazards. **Conclusion** The current punitive approach to opioids epidemic is ineffective and counterproductive. Evidence so far supports this way of reducing penalties for the possession of prescription opioids. The current punitive approach hasn't worked at addressing the roots of the opioid epidemic but only managed to increase stigma and limit access to treatment. Compassionate prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation efforts could perhaps eliminate the causes of addiction and reduce the burden that the criminal justice system now bears. Instead than morally condemning and imprisoning addicts, investing in evidence-based therapy like drug courts and diversion programs can help them recover. **References** Beckett, K., & Brydolf-Horwitz, M. (2020). A kinder, gentler drug war? Race, drugs, and punishment in 21st century America. _Punishment & Society_, _22_(4), 146247452092514. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520925145 Bowers, J., & Abrahamson, D. (2020). _Kicking the Habit: The Opioid Crisis and America’s Addiction to Prohibition_. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26215 CDC. (2023, August 8). _Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic | Opioids | CDC_. Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20people%20who Coombs, N. C., Meriwether, W. E., Caringi, J., & Newcomer, S. R. (2021). Barriers to healthcare access among U.S. adults with mental health challenges: A population-based study. _SSM – Population Health_, _15_(PMC8214217), 100847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100847 Dickson-Gomez, J., Spector, A., Krechel, S., Li, J., Montaque, H. D. G., Ohlrich, J., Galletly, C., & Weeks, M. (2022). Barriers to drug treatment in police diversion programs and drug courts: A qualitative analysis. _American Journal of Orthopsychiatry_. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000643 Hamid, F. A., Marker, C. L., Raleigh, M. D., Khaimraj, A., Winston, S., Pentel, P. R., & Pravetoni, M. (2022). Pre-clinical safety and toxicology profile of a candidate vaccine to treat oxycodone use disorder. _Vaccine_, _40_(23), 3244–3252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.03.053 Ochterbeck, D., Frense, J., & Forberger, S. (2023). A survey of international addiction researchers’ views on implications of brain-based explanations of addiction and the responsibility of affected persons. _Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs_. https://doi.org/10.1177/14550725231188802 Office of National Drug Control Policy. (2023). _Drug Courts_. The White House. https://whitehouse.archives.gov/ondcp/ondcp-fact-sheets/drug-courts-smart-approach-to-criminal-justice Preuss, C. V., Kalava, A., & King, K. C. (2023, April 29). _Prescription of controlled substances: benefits and risks_. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537318/ Vedder, T. J. (2020). _Examining the criminogenic effect of imprisonment on drug offender recidivism – ProQuest_. Www.proquest.com. https://www.proquest.com/openview/fb83bb199b5b1c2dbb0ba23c38b73a13/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Wogen, J., & Restrepo, M. T. (2020). Human rights, stigma, and substance use. _Health and Human Rights_, _22_(1), 51–60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7348456/ Yucel, E., Bearnot, B., Paras, M. L., Zern, E. K., Dudzinski, D. M., Soong, C.-P., Jassar, A. S., Rosenfield, K., Lira, J., Lambert, E., Wakeman, S. E., & Sundt, T. (2022). Diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis in people who inject drugs. _Journal of the American College of Cardiology_, _79_(20), 2037–2057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.03.349 **## ClassicModelforanArgument..docx** 1 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Isairy Otano Florida National University Advanced Writing and Research Professor: Amanda M Giust January 14, 2024 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Opioids are pharmacological substances that mitigate pain by interacting with certain receptors in the brain or the central nervous system. However, Over the last two decades, several reports have expressed concern over the safety of these medications. The opioid epidemic has reached alarming proportions. The epidemic has materialized into a horrifying reality that has had catastrophic effects on global communities. Opioid use disorder (OUD) has been identified in 27 million individuals worldwide, and over 92,000 fatalities are linked to opioid overdoses each year (Hamid et al., 2022). The United States particularly faces a significant problem with opioid use disorder (OUD) and the occurrence of fatal overdoses resulting from the illegal use of opioids. The situation has become so concerning that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services officially declared it an opioid epidemic in 2017. Over the last decade, the opioid epidemic has contributed to a drop in US life expectancy. Oxycodone and hydrocodone usage and overdose mortality surged in the 1990s due to increasing prescriptions. The growing availability of heroin and synthetic opioids like fentanyl may have contributed to opioid overdose deaths. Street drugs, including fentanyl or its powerful analogues, heroin, or psychostimulants, have also contributed to this development. Presently, the United States has the greatest count of fatalities caused by opioid overdoses globally. CDC (2023) reports that the fatality count resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 exceeded sixfold the figure recorded in 1999. There was a 16% increase in drug overdose fatalities from 2020 to 2021. More than three-quarters of the over 107,000 fatalities resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 were caused by opioids between the years 2020 and 2021. Opioid use disorder (OUD) may lower quality of life, worsen comorbid diseases, and raise the risk of blood-borne infections, including HIV and hepatitis. Prescription opioid possession is punishable by harsh penalties. However, they have failed to reduce nationwide non-fatal and deadly overdoses. The punishments frequently reinforce a cycle that doesn't address addiction's causes. Penalties for the possession of prescription opioids should be reduced due to a compassionate approach to addiction, potential alternative treatments and the reduction in the criminal justice system's burden. **The Essence of a Compassionate Treatment for Addiction** Penalties for prescription opioids possession need to be re-evaluated in the light of humane addiction therapy. The compassionate approach to addiction therapy hopes for a person. From its point of view, every individual person is fundamentally good and full of potential, whatever his or her actions and situations. Personal development, change, and self-realization, both positive and negative, can be experienced by all people over the course of their life. It also accepts that even actions that harm are often based on a motivation to be a part of something or fulfil unmet needs. The method is concerned with empathy, understanding, respect, and support. This form of treatment admits the fact that all these factors are contributory to the process of healing and the creation of a sense of self-worth and dignity. Such a humanitarian form of treatment also admits the fact that addiction is a medical problem, not a criminal one. It emphasizes the punishment, most of the time in the form of jail, which is mere exacerbation of addiction without treating the roots of the problem. These punishments are fines, probation, and probably imprisonment. The punitive view displays the attitude of treating addiction as a crime, rather than a chronic sickness. Such view totally ignores the scientific knowledge of addiction as the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social components. On the other hand, compassionate therapy involves caring and support for addicts with realization of their worthiness and ability to recover. Recent research and experts have shown that punitive tactics do not work in treating addiction. Ochterbeck et al. (2023) provide persuasive evidence that punitive techniques are ineffective and recommend treatment-focused strategies. Viewing addiction as a health problem rather than a crime indicates that punitive measures do not fix drug usage. Holistic addiction therapy is more thorough and compassionate than punishing. Addiction recovery depends on non-specialized counselling, treatment, and rehabilitation clinics. According to Yucel et al. (2022), trauma, mental health concerns, and socioeconomic inequities contribute to addiction; therefore, tackling both is crucial. Alternative techniques in numerous nations and jurisdictions demonstrate the efficacy of compassionate treatment strategies. Harm reduction programs minimize the harmful effects of drug use as people recover at their speed. Drug treatment courts also concentrate on rehabilitation rather than punishment for substance use problems. These methods show that compassion and caring in addiction treatment may work. **Potential for Alternative Treatments** Reducing prescription opioid possession penalties is crucial, especially given the possibility of better opioid dependency therapies. Opioid dependency treatment includes MAT and behavioural therapy. MAT uses methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone with counselling and behavioural therapy. The medications reduce opioid cravings and withdrawal, simplifying cessation. To improve drug use habits, behavioural treatment uses counseling and psychotherapy. Despite these treatment options, opioid abusers encounter significant barriers to care. Stigma, racism, lack of insurance, and limited treatment facilities restrict many. The barriers may hinder addicts from seeking treatment, leaving them exposed to opioid usage and its effects (Wogen & Restrepo, 2020). Reduce prescription opioid possession charges to help people get treatment. To escape prosecution, addicts may seek therapy. It may improve treatment and lower opioid dependency's socioeconomic cost. Acupuncture and mindfulness-based therapy options may help opioid dependence. The insertion of needles into certain body sites helps regulate withdrawal symptoms, reduce cravings, and increase well-being. Acupuncture reduces opioid usage and aids rehabilitation (Coombs et al., 2021). Other therapies like yoga and meditation target stress, trauma, and emotional regulation, which contribute to addiction. Integrating these treatments into existing addiction treatment programs can provide a more comprehensive and personalized approach to recovery. For instance, local drug courts move non-violent criminals with substance use issues from jail to supervised programs with treatment and strict responsibility. Through case management, the courts link the judicial, law enforcement, and treatment communities to other systems and provider organizations to meet participants' education, housing, job training, and mental health referral requirements. Drug courts aid in addiction recovery, deter future criminal action and reduce the expense of processing low-level, non-violent offenders in courts, jails, and prisons (Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2023). **Reducing the Burden on the Criminal Justice System** The criminal justice system is overburdened with drug-related charges, and reducing prescription opioid possession sanctions is essential. Overcrowded prisons and limited law enforcement resources have resulted from the criminalization of drug crimes, particularly prescription opioid possession (Vedder, 2020). Punitive approaches towards drug offences have been largely ineffective in addressing addiction rates or reducing drug usage levels. Despite harsh penalties for drug-related offences, addiction rates continue to rise, and drug usage levels remain high. Punitive measures alone are insufficient in addressing the underlying issues driving drug addiction. A shift in focus towards prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation programs could help alleviate the burden on the criminal justice system. Prevention strategies like education and outreach may address addiction's fundamental causes before people enter the criminal justice system. Addiction treatment and rehabilitation programs provide the help and tools needed to overcome drug use problems without jail. Police and jail defunding may fund preventive treatment and re-entry initiatives. Community-based drug courts and diversion programs may be better at treating drug addiction than law enforcement and jail. Providing compassionate and effective addiction treatment and support. The interventions reduce recidivism and improve addict outcomes. (Dickson-Gomez et al., 2022). **Counterarguments and Rebuttals** There has been controversy around reducing the penalty for the possession of prescribed opioids, with concern arising from addiction, overdose deaths, and illegal drug trafficking. The major problem is making these drugs easily available, and a misapprehension in the mind of the public about the hazards associated with it. Similarly, the argument that reducing penalties for possession would help to avoid root causes of the opioid epidemic, such as overprescribing pain medication, lack of access to evidence-based treatment and recovery services, and a deficit in education about the dangers of prescription opioid abuse (Beckett & Brydolf-Horwitz, 2020). Drug trafficking organizations would then be even more willing to trade prescription opioids with lesser chance of persecution, increasing drug consumption. Prescription opioids are highly addictive and can make one develop physical and psychological addiction, respiratory depression, coma, and death. The other problem that such opioid crisis creates is drug trafficking, in that powerful cartels dominate the production and hubs in some of the most major American cities for the supply of heroin. Lowering prescription opioid possession penalties could enhance access, sales, and distribution and send the incorrect message to the public. To eliminate opioid distributors, harsh consequences should be implemented. (Bowers and Abrahamson, 2020). However, evidence would suggest that compassionate, therapy-based programs are more effective at getting to the root causes of addiction and reducing stigma. Reduced stigma, enhanced community health, and resource diversion to preventive and treatment clearly outweigh perceived hazards. **Conclusion** The current punitive approach to opioids epidemic is ineffective and counterproductive. Evidence so far supports this way of reducing penalties for the possession of prescription opioids. The current punitive approach hasn't worked at addressing the roots of the opioid epidemic but only managed to increase stigma and limit access to treatment. Compassionate prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation efforts could perhaps eliminate the causes of addiction and reduce the burden that the criminal justice system now bears. Instead than morally condemning and imprisoning addicts, investing in evidence-based therapy like drug courts and diversion programs can help them recover. **References** Beckett, K., & Brydolf-Horwitz, M. (2020). A kinder, gentler drug war? Race, drugs, and punishment in 21st century America. _Punishment & Society_, _22_(4), 146247452092514. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520925145 Bowers, J., & Abrahamson, D. (2020). _Kicking the Habit: The Opioid Crisis and America’s Addiction to Prohibition_. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26215 CDC. (2023, August 8). _Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic | Opioids | CDC_. Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20people%20who Coombs, N. C., Meriwether, W. E., Caringi, J., & Newcomer, S. R. (2021). Barriers to healthcare access among U.S. adults with mental health challenges: A population-based study. _SSM – Population Health_, _15_(PMC8214217), 100847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100847 Dickson-Gomez, J., Spector, A., Krechel, S., Li, J., Montaque, H. D. G., Ohlrich, J., Galletly, C., & Weeks, M. (2022). Barriers to drug treatment in police diversion programs and drug courts: A qualitative analysis. _American Journal of Orthopsychiatry_. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000643 Hamid, F. A., Marker, C. L., Raleigh, M. D., Khaimraj, A., Winston, S., Pentel, P. R., & Pravetoni, M. (2022). Pre-clinical safety and toxicology profile of a candidate vaccine to treat oxycodone use disorder. _Vaccine_, _40_(23), 3244–3252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.03.053 Ochterbeck, D., Frense, J., & Forberger, S. (2023). A survey of international addiction researchers’ views on implications of brain-based explanations of addiction and the responsibility of affected persons. _Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs_. https://doi.org/10.1177/14550725231188802 Office of National Drug Control Policy. (2023). _Drug Courts_. The White House. https://whitehouse.archives.gov/ondcp/ondcp-fact-sheets/drug-courts-smart-approach-to-criminal-justice Preuss, C. V., Kalava, A., & King, K. C. (2023, April 29). _Prescription of controlled substances: benefits and risks_. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537318/ Vedder, T. J. (2020). _Examining the criminogenic effect of imprisonment on drug offender recidivism – ProQuest_. Www.proquest.com. https://www.proquest.com/openview/fb83bb199b5b1c2dbb0ba23c38b73a13/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Wogen, J., & Restrepo, M. T. (2020). Human rights, stigma, and substance use. _Health and Human Rights_, _22_(1), 51–60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7348456/ Yucel, E., Bearnot, B., Paras, M. L., Zern, E. K., Dudzinski, D. M., Soong, C.-P., Jassar, A. S., Rosenfield, K., Lira, J., Lambert, E., Wakeman, S. E., & Sundt, T. (2022). Diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis in people who inject drugs. _Journal of the American College of Cardiology_, _79_(20), 2037–2057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.03.349 **## ResearchPaper2.docx** Research Paper 2 Content 1. Top of Form **PLEASE READ MY FEEDBACK ON YOUR ARGUMENT OUTLINE BEFORE SUBMITTING YOUR FINAL DRAFT** **Research Paper #2** This paper must be between 4 to 5 pages long ( **_not including the References page_**). This paper must be in **APA format.** **_ITALICIZE_ OR** **UNDERLINE YOUR THESIS STATEMENT** The paper must be from one of the topics listed from the list of topics you were given. **_Please note that your References page MUST have at least 8 (EIGHT) credible sources such as: books, newspapers, medical journals, and magazines._** Do not use websites such as: Wikipedia, Infoplease, Answers.com, WebMd, Psychology Today, etc. **You must use the FNU library database–LIRN.** **THIS IS A RESEARCH PAPER….NOT A LITERATURE REVIEW!!!!!** **Do NOT include tables, lists, bullet points, and graphs in your paper.** Be sure to edit your work before submitting it. **Be sure to AVOID CONTRACTIONS in formal writing.** **ONLY SUBMIT THE PAPER. YOU DO NOT NEED A COVER PAGE. DO NOT SUBMIT AN OUTLINE WITH THE PAPER.** **Research Paper #2 is due on Friday, December 5, by 11:30 p.m., EST.** Bottom of Form **## ClassicModelforanArgument..docx** 1 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Isairy Otano Florida National University Advanced Writing and Research Professor: Amanda M Giust January 14, 2024 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Opioids are pharmacological substances that mitigate pain by interacting with certain receptors in the brain or the central nervous system. However, Over the last two decades, several reports have expressed concern over the safety of these medications. The opioid epidemic has reached alarming proportions. The epidemic has materialized into a horrifying reality that has had catastrophic effects on global communities. Opioid use disorder (OUD) has been identified in 27 million individuals worldwide, and over 92,000 fatalities are linked to opioid overdoses each year (Hamid et al., 2022). The United States particularly faces a significant problem with opioid use disorder (OUD) and the occurrence of fatal overdoses resulting from the illegal use of opioids. The situation has become so concerning that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services officially declared it an opioid epidemic in 2017. Over the last decade, the opioid epidemic has contributed to a drop in US life expectancy. Oxycodone and hydrocodone usage and overdose mortality surged in the 1990s due to increasing prescriptions. The growing availability of heroin and synthetic opioids like fentanyl may have contributed to opioid overdose deaths. Street drugs, including fentanyl or its powerful analogues, heroin, or psychostimulants, have also contributed to this development. Presently, the United States has the greatest count of fatalities caused by opioid overdoses globally. CDC (2023) reports that the fatality count resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 exceeded sixfold the figure recorded in 1999. There was a 16% increase in drug overdose fatalities from 2020 to 2021. More than three-quarters of the over 107,000 fatalities resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 were caused by opioids between the years 2020 and 2021. Opioid use disorder (OUD) may lower quality of life, worsen comorbid diseases, and raise the risk of blood-borne infections, including HIV and hepatitis. Prescription opioid possession is punishable by harsh penalties. However, they have failed to reduce nationwide non-fatal and deadly overdoses. The punishments frequently reinforce a cycle that doesn't address addiction's causes. Penalties for the possession of prescription opioids should be reduced due to a compassionate approach to addiction, potential alternative treatments and the reduction in the criminal justice system's burden. **The Essence of a Compassionate Treatment for Addiction** Penalties for prescription opioids possession need to be re-evaluated in the light of humane addiction therapy. The compassionate approach to addiction therapy hopes for a person. From its point of view, every individual person is fundamentally good and full of potential, whatever his or her actions and situations. Personal development, change, and self-realization, both positive and negative, can be experienced by all people over the course of their life. It also accepts that even actions that harm are often based on a motivation to be a part of something or fulfil unmet needs. The method is concerned with empathy, understanding, respect, and support. This form of treatment admits the fact that all these factors are contributory to the process of healing and the creation of a sense of self-worth and dignity. Such a humanitarian form of treatment also admits the fact that addiction is a medical problem, not a criminal one. It emphasizes the punishment, most of the time in the form of jail, which is mere exacerbation of addiction without treating the roots of the problem. These punishments are fines, probation, and probably imprisonment. The punitive view displays the attitude of treating addiction as a crime, rather than a chronic sickness. Such view totally ignores the scientific knowledge of addiction as the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social components. On the other hand, compassionate therapy involves caring and support for addicts with realization of their worthiness and ability to recover. Recent research and experts have shown that punitive tactics do not work in treating addiction. Ochterbeck et al. (2023) provide persuasive evidence that punitive techniques are ineffective and recommend treatment-focused strategies. Viewing addiction as a health problem rather than a crime indicates that punitive measures do not fix drug usage. Holistic addiction therapy is more thorough and compassionate than punishing. Addiction recovery depends on non-specialized counselling, treatment, and rehabilitation clinics. According to Yucel et al. (2022), trauma, mental health concerns, and socioeconomic inequities contribute to addiction; therefore, tackling both is crucial. Alternative techniques in numerous nations and jurisdictions demonstrate the efficacy of compassionate treatment strategies. Harm reduction programs minimize the harmful effects of drug use as people recover at their speed. Drug treatment courts also concentrate on rehabilitation rather than punishment for substance use problems. These methods show that compassion and caring in addiction treatment may work. **Potential for Alternative Treatments** Reducing prescription opioid possession penalties is crucial, especially given the possibility of better opioid dependency therapies. Opioid dependency treatment includes MAT and behavioural therapy. MAT uses methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone with counselling and behavioural therapy. The medications reduce opioid cravings and withdrawal, simplifying cessation. To improve drug use habits, behavioural treatment uses counseling and psychotherapy. Despite these treatment options, opioid abusers encounter significant barriers to care. Stigma, racism, lack of insurance, and limited treatment facilities restrict many. The barriers may hinder addicts from seeking treatment, leaving them exposed to opioid usage and its effects (Wogen & Restrepo, 2020). Reduce prescription opioid possession charges to help people get treatment. To escape prosecution, addicts may seek therapy. It may improve treatment and lower opioid dependency's socioeconomic cost. Acupuncture and mindfulness-based therapy options may help opioid dependence. The insertion of needles into certain body sites helps regulate withdrawal symptoms, reduce cravings, and increase well-being. Acupuncture reduces opioid usage and aids rehabilitation (Coombs et al., 2021). Other therapies like yoga and meditation target stress, trauma, and emotional regulation, which contribute to addiction. Integrating these treatments into existing addiction treatment programs can provide a more comprehensive and personalized approach to recovery. For instance, local drug courts move non-violent criminals with substance use issues from jail to supervised programs with treatment and strict responsibility. Through case management, the courts link the judicial, law enforcement, and treatment communities to other systems and provider organizations to meet participants' education, housing, job training, and mental health referral requirements. Drug courts aid in addiction recovery, deter future criminal action and reduce the expense of processing low-level, non-violent offenders in courts, jails, and prisons (Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2023). **Reducing the Burden on the Criminal Justice System** The criminal justice system is overburdened with drug-related charges, and reducing prescription opioid possession sanctions is essential. Overcrowded prisons and limited law enforcement resources have resulted from the criminalization of drug crimes, particularly prescription opioid possession (Vedder, 2020). Punitive approaches towards drug offences have been largely ineffective in addressing addiction rates or reducing drug usage levels. Despite harsh penalties for drug-related offences, addiction rates continue to rise, and drug usage levels remain high. Punitive measures alone are insufficient in addressing the underlying issues driving drug addiction. A shift in focus towards prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation programs could help alleviate the burden on the criminal justice system. Prevention strategies like education and outreach may address addiction's fundamental causes before people enter the criminal justice system. Addiction treatment and rehabilitation programs provide the help and tools needed to overcome drug use problems without jail. Police and jail defunding may fund preventive treatment and re-entry initiatives. Community-based drug courts and diversion programs may be better at treating drug addiction than law enforcement and jail. Providing compassionate and effective addiction treatment and support. The interventions reduce recidivism and improve addict outcomes. (Dickson-Gomez et al., 2022). **Counterarguments and Rebuttals** There has been controversy around reducing the penalty for the possession of prescribed opioids, with concern arising from addiction, overdose deaths, and illegal drug trafficking. The major problem is making these drugs easily available, and a misapprehension in the mind of the public about the hazards associated with it. Similarly, the argument that reducing penalties for possession would help to avoid root causes of the opioid epidemic, such as overprescribing pain medication, lack of access to evidence-based treatment and recovery services, and a deficit in education about the dangers of prescription opioid abuse (Beckett & Brydolf-Horwitz, 2020). Drug trafficking organizations would then be even more willing to trade prescription opioids with lesser chance of persecution, increasing drug consumption. Prescription opioids are highly addictive and can make one develop physical and psychological addiction, respiratory depression, coma, and death. The other problem that such opioid crisis creates is drug trafficking, in that powerful cartels dominate the production and hubs in some of the most major American cities for the supply of heroin. Lowering prescription opioid possession penalties could enhance access, sales, and distribution and send the incorrect message to the public. To eliminate opioid distributors, harsh consequences should be implemented. (Bowers and Abrahamson, 2020). However, evidence would suggest that compassionate, therapy-based programs are more effective at getting to the root causes of addiction and reducing stigma. Reduced stigma, enhanced community health, and resource diversion to preventive and treatment clearly outweigh perceived hazards. **Conclusion** The current punitive approach to opioids epidemic is ineffective and counterproductive. Evidence so far supports this way of reducing penalties for the possession of prescription opioids. The current punitive approach hasn't worked at addressing the roots of the opioid epidemic but only managed to increase stigma and limit access to treatment. Compassionate prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation efforts could perhaps eliminate the causes of addiction and reduce the burden that the criminal justice system now bears. Instead than morally condemning and imprisoning addicts, investing in evidence-based therapy like drug courts and diversion programs can help them recover. **References** Beckett, K., & Brydolf-Horwitz, M. (2020). A kinder, gentler drug war? Race, drugs, and punishment in 21st century America. _Punishment & Society_, _22_(4), 146247452092514. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520925145 Bowers, J., & Abrahamson, D. (2020). _Kicking the Habit: The Opioid Crisis and America’s Addiction to Prohibition_. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26215 CDC. (2023, August 8). _Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic | Opioids | CDC_. Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20people%20who Coombs, N. C., Meriwether, W. E., Caringi, J., & Newcomer, S. R. (2021). Barriers to healthcare access among U.S. adults with mental health challenges: A population-based study. _SSM – Population Health_, _15_(PMC8214217), 100847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100847 Dickson-Gomez, J., Spector, A., Krechel, S., Li, J., Montaque, H. D. G., Ohlrich, J., Galletly, C., & Weeks, M. (2022). Barriers to drug treatment in police diversion programs and drug courts: A qualitative analysis. _American Journal of Orthopsychiatry_. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000643 Hamid, F. A., Marker, C. L., Raleigh, M. D., Khaimraj, A., Winston, S., Pentel, P. R., & Pravetoni, M. (2022). Pre-clinical safety and toxicology profile of a candidate vaccine to treat oxycodone use disorder. _Vaccine_, _40_(23), 3244–3252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.03.053 Ochterbeck, D., Frense, J., & Forberger, S. (2023). A survey of international addiction researchers’ views on implications of brain-based explanations of addiction and the responsibility of affected persons. _Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs_. https://doi.org/10.1177/14550725231188802 Office of National Drug Control Policy. (2023). _Drug Courts_. The White House. https://whitehouse.archives.gov/ondcp/ondcp-fact-sheets/drug-courts-smart-approach-to-criminal-justice Preuss, C. V., Kalava, A., & King, K. C. (2023, April 29). _Prescription of controlled substances: benefits and risks_. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537318/ Vedder, T. J. (2020). _Examining the criminogenic effect of imprisonment on drug offender recidivism – ProQuest_. Www.proquest.com. https://www.proquest.com/openview/fb83bb199b5b1c2dbb0ba23c38b73a13/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Wogen, J., & Restrepo, M. T. (2020). Human rights, stigma, and substance use. _Health and Human Rights_, _22_(1), 51–60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7348456/ Yucel, E., Bearnot, B., Paras, M. L., Zern, E. K., Dudzinski, D. M., Soong, C.-P., Jassar, A. S., Rosenfield, K., Lira, J., Lambert, E., Wakeman, S. E., & Sundt, T. (2022). Diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis in people who inject drugs. _Journal of the American College of Cardiology_, _79_(20), 2037–2057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.03.349 **## ResearchPaper2.docx** Research Paper 2 Content 1. Top of Form **PLEASE READ MY FEEDBACK ON YOUR ARGUMENT OUTLINE BEFORE SUBMITTING YOUR FINAL DRAFT** **Research Paper #2** This paper must be between 4 to 5 pages long ( **_not including the References page_**). This paper must be in **APA format.** **_ITALICIZE_ OR** **UNDERLINE YOUR THESIS STATEMENT** The paper must be from one of the topics listed from the list of topics you were given. **_Please note that your References page MUST have at least 8 (EIGHT) credible sources such as: books, newspapers, medical journals, and magazines._** Do not use websites such as: Wikipedia, Infoplease, Answers.com, WebMd, Psychology Today, etc. **You must use the FNU library database–LIRN.** **THIS IS A RESEARCH PAPER….NOT A LITERATURE REVIEW!!!!!** **Do NOT include tables, lists, bullet points, and graphs in your paper.** Be sure to edit your work before submitting it. **Be sure to AVOID CONTRACTIONS in formal writing.** **ONLY SUBMIT THE PAPER. YOU DO NOT NEED A COVER PAGE. DO NOT SUBMIT AN OUTLINE WITH THE PAPER.** **Research Paper #2 is due on Friday, December 5, by 11:30 p.m., EST.** Bottom of Form **## ClassicModelforanArgument..docx** 1 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Isairy Otano Florida National University Advanced Writing and Research Professor: Amanda M Giust January 14, 2024 **Should the penalty for possession of prescription opioids be lessened?** Opioids are pharmacological substances that mitigate pain by interacting with certain receptors in the brain or the central nervous system. However, Over the last two decades, several reports have expressed concern over the safety of these medications. The opioid epidemic has reached alarming proportions. The epidemic has materialized into a horrifying reality that has had catastrophic effects on global communities. Opioid use disorder (OUD) has been identified in 27 million individuals worldwide, and over 92,000 fatalities are linked to opioid overdoses each year (Hamid et al., 2022). The United States particularly faces a significant problem with opioid use disorder (OUD) and the occurrence of fatal overdoses resulting from the illegal use of opioids. The situation has become so concerning that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services officially declared it an opioid epidemic in 2017. Over the last decade, the opioid epidemic has contributed to a drop in US life expectancy. Oxycodone and hydrocodone usage and overdose mortality surged in the 1990s due to increasing prescriptions. The growing availability of heroin and synthetic opioids like fentanyl may have contributed to opioid overdose deaths. Street drugs, including fentanyl or its powerful analogues, heroin, or psychostimulants, have also contributed to this development. Presently, the United States has the greatest count of fatalities caused by opioid overdoses globally. CDC (2023) reports that the fatality count resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 exceeded sixfold the figure recorded in 1999. There was a 16% increase in drug overdose fatalities from 2020 to 2021. More than three-quarters of the over 107,000 fatalities resulting from drug overdoses in 2021 were caused by opioids between the years 2020 and 2021. Opioid use disorder (OUD) may lower quality of life, worsen comorbid diseases, and raise the risk of blood-borne infections, including HIV and hepatitis. Prescription opioid possession is punishable by harsh penalties. However, they have failed to reduce nationwide non-fatal and deadly overdoses. The punishments frequently reinforce a cycle that doesn't address addiction's causes. Penalties for the possession of prescription opioids should be reduced due to a compassionate approach to addiction, potential alternative treatments and the reduction in the criminal justice system's burden. **The Essence of a Compassionate Treatment for Addiction** Penalties for prescription opioids possession need to be re-evaluated in the light of humane addiction therapy. The compassionate approach to addiction therapy hopes for a person. From its point of view, every individual person is fundamentally good and full of potential, whatever his or her actions and situations. Personal development, change, and self-realization, both positive and negative, can be experienced by all people over the course of their life. It also accepts that even actions that harm are often based on a motivation to be a part of something or fulfil unmet needs. The method is concerned with empathy, understanding, respect, and support. This form of treatment admits the fact that all these factors are contributory to the process of healing and the creation of a sense of self-worth and dignity. Such a humanitarian form of treatment also admits the fact that addiction is a medical problem, not a criminal one. It emphasizes the punishment, most of the time in the form of jail, which is mere exacerbation of addiction without treating the roots of the problem. These punishments are fines, probation, and probably imprisonment. The punitive view displays the attitude of treating addiction as a crime, rather than a chronic sickness. Such view totally ignores the scientific knowledge of addiction as the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social components. On the other hand, compassionate therapy involves caring and support for addicts with realization of their worthiness and ability to recover. Recent research and experts have shown that punitive tactics do not work in treating addiction. Ochterbeck et al. (2023) provide persuasive evidence that punitive techniques are ineffective and recommend treatment-focused strategies. Viewing addiction as a health problem rather than a crime indicates that punitive measures do not fix drug usage. Holistic addiction therapy is more thorough and compassionate than punishing. Addiction recovery depends on non-specialized counselling, treatment, and rehabilitation clinics. According to Yucel et al. (2022), trauma, mental health concerns, and socioeconomic inequities contribute to addiction; therefore, tackling both is crucial. Alternative techniques in numerous nations and jurisdictions demonstrate the efficacy of compassionate treatment strategies. Harm reduction programs minimize the harmful effects of drug use as people recover at their speed. Drug treatment courts also concentrate on rehabilitation rather than punishment for substance use problems. These methods show that compassion and caring in addiction treatment may work. **Potential for Alternative Treatments** Reducing prescription opioid possession penalties is crucial, especially given the possibility of better opioid dependency therapies. Opioid dependency treatment includes MAT and behavioural therapy. MAT uses methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone with counselling and behavioural therapy. The medications reduce opioid cravings and withdrawal, simplifying cessation. To improve drug use habits, behavioural treatment uses counseling and psychotherapy. Despite these treatment options, opioid abusers encounter significant barriers to care. Stigma, racism, lack of insurance, and limited treatment facilities restrict many. The barriers may hinder addicts from seeking treatment, leaving them exposed to opioid usage and its effects (Wogen & Restrepo, 2020). Reduce prescription opioid possession charges to help people get treatment. To escape prosecution, addicts may seek therapy. It may improve treatment and lower opioid dependency's socioeconomic cost. Acupuncture and mindfulness-based therapy options may help opioid dependence. The insertion of needles into certain body sites helps regulate withdrawal symptoms, reduce cravings, and increase well-being. Acupuncture reduces opioid usage and aids rehabilitation (Coombs et al., 2021). Other therapies like yoga and meditation target stress, trauma, and emotional regulation, which contribute to addiction. Integrating these treatments into existing addiction treatment programs can provide a more comprehensive and personalized approach to recovery. For instance, local drug courts move non-violent criminals with substance use issues from jail to supervised programs with treatment and strict responsibility. Through case management, the courts link the judicial, law enforcement, and treatment communities to other systems and provider organizations to meet participants' education, housing, job training, and mental health referral requirements. Drug courts aid in addiction recovery, deter future criminal action and reduce the expense of processing low-level, non-violent offenders in courts, jails, and prisons (Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2023). **Reducing the Burden on the Criminal Justice System** The criminal justice system is overburdened with drug-related charges, and reducing prescription opioid possession sanctions is essential. Overcrowded prisons and limited law enforcement resources have resulted from the criminalization of drug crimes, particularly prescription opioid possession (Vedder, 2020). Punitive approaches towards drug offences have been largely ineffective in addressing addiction rates or reducing drug usage levels. Despite harsh penalties for drug-related offences, addiction rates continue to rise, and drug usage levels remain high. Punitive measures alone are insufficient in addressing the underlying issues driving drug addiction. A shift in focus towards prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation programs could help alleviate the burden on the criminal justice system. Prevention strategies like education and outreach may address addiction's fundamental causes before people enter the criminal justice system. Addiction treatment and rehabilitation programs provide the help and tools needed to overcome drug use problems without jail. Police and jail defunding may fund preventive treatment and re-entry initiatives. Community-based drug courts and diversion programs may be better at treating drug addiction than law enforcement and jail. Providing compassionate and effective addiction treatment and support. The interventions reduce recidivism and improve addict outcomes. (Dickson-Gomez et al., 2022). **Counterarguments and Rebuttals** There has been controversy around reducing the penalty for the possession of prescribed opioids, with concern arising from addiction, overdose deaths, and illegal drug trafficking. The major problem is making these drugs easily available, and a misapprehension in the mind of the public about the hazards associated with it. Similarly, the argument that reducing penalties for possession would help to avoid root causes of the opioid epidemic, such as overprescribing pain medication, lack of access to evidence-based treatment and recovery services, and a deficit in education about the dangers of prescription opioid abuse (Beckett & Brydolf-Horwitz, 2020). Drug trafficking organizations would then be even more willing to trade prescription opioids with lesser chance of persecution, increasing drug consumption. Prescription opioids are highly addictive and can make one develop physical and psychological addiction, respiratory depression, coma, and death. The other problem that such opioid crisis creates is drug trafficking, in that powerful cartels dominate the production and hubs in some of the most major American cities for the supply of heroin. Lowering prescription opioid possession penalties could enhance access, sales, and distribution and send the incorrect message to the public. To eliminate opioid distributors, harsh consequences should be implemented. (Bowers and Abrahamson, 2020). However, evidence would suggest that compassionate, therapy-based programs are more effective at getting to the root causes of addiction and reducing stigma. Reduced stigma, enhanced community health, and resource diversion to preventive and treatment clearly outweigh perceived hazards. **Conclusion** The current punitive approach to opioids epidemic is ineffective and counterproductive. Evidence so far supports this way of reducing penalties for the possession of prescription opioids. The current punitive approach hasn't worked at addressing the roots of the opioid epidemic but only managed to increase stigma and limit access to treatment. Compassionate prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation efforts could perhaps eliminate the causes of addiction and reduce the burden that the criminal justice system now bears. Instead than morally condemning and imprisoning addicts, investing in evidence-based therapy like drug courts and diversion programs can help them recover. **References** Beckett, K., & Brydolf-Horwitz, M. (2020). A kinder, gentler drug war? Race, drugs, and punishment in 21st century America. _Punishment & Society_, _22_(4), 146247452092514. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520925145 Bowers, J., & Abrahamson, D. (2020). _Kicking the Habit: The Opioid Crisis and America’s Addiction to Prohibition_. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26215 CDC. (2023, August 8). _Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic | Opioids | CDC_. Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20people%20who Coombs, N. C., Meriwether, W. E., Caringi, J., & Newcomer, S. R. (2021). Barriers to healthcare access among U.S. adults with mental health challenges: A population-based study. _SSM – Population Health_, _15_(PMC8214217), 100847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100847 Dickson-Gomez, J., Spector, A., Krechel, S., Li, J., Montaque, H. D. G., Ohlrich, J., Galletly, C., & Weeks, M. (2022). Barriers to drug treatment in police diversion programs and drug courts: A qualitative analysis. _American Journal of Orthopsychiatry_. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000643 Hamid, F. A., Marker, C. L., Raleigh, M. D., Khaimraj, A., Winston, S., Pentel, P. R., & Pravetoni, M. (2022). Pre-clinical safety and toxicology profile of a candidate vaccine to treat oxycodone use disorder. _Vaccine_, _40_(23), 3244–3252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.03.053 Ochterbeck, D., Frense, J., & Forberger, S. (2023). A survey of international addiction researchers’ views on implications of brain-based explanations of addiction and the responsibility of affected persons. _Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs_. https://doi.org/10.1177/14550725231188802 Office of National Drug Control Policy. (2023). _Drug Courts_. The White House. https://whitehouse.archives.gov/ondcp/ondcp-fact-sheets/drug-courts-smart-approach-to-criminal-justice Preuss, C. V., Kalava, A., & King, K. C. (2023, April 29). _Prescription of controlled substances: benefits and risks_. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537318/ Vedder, T. J. (2020). _Examining the criminogenic effect of imprisonment on drug offender recidivism – ProQuest_. Www.proquest.com. https://www.proquest.com/openview/fb83bb199b5b1c2dbb0ba23c38b73a13/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y Wogen, J., & Restrepo, M. T. (2020). Human rights, stigma, and substance use. _Health and Human Rights_, _22_(1), 51–60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7348456/ Yucel, E., Bearnot, B., Paras, M. L., Zern, E. K., Dudzinski, D. M., Soong, C.-P., Jassar, A. S., Rosenfield, K., Lira, J., Lambert, E., Wakeman, S. E., & Sundt, T. (2022). Diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis in people who inject drugs. _Journal of the American College of Cardiology_, _79_(20), 2037–2057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.03.349 – 1 – 2